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Comte (1851) was interested in epistemology, or in other words, how humans obtain valid knowledge. He claimed human being’s progression of knowledge went through three separate stages – theological, metaphysical, and scientific.[1] The theological stage used supernatural or otherworldly powers to explain behaviors, the metaphysical used rational and logical arguments, and the scientific used positivism and scientific inquiry. During the middle ages, spiritual explanations assumed human beings broke laws or did not conform to conventional norms of society because he or she possessed by demons, the devil, or he or she was a wizard or witch. These explanations assumed God-given “natural law”; thus, crime was equivalent to sin. Governments had the moral authority to punish criminals/sinners and the state was acting on behalf of God. As a result, the accused person could “prove” their innocence by a trial by battle (only the victor is innocent) or trial by ordeal (innocent party would be unharmed while the guilty party would feel pain). As you can imagine, punishments and justice were arbitrary and severe, especially when feudal lords, with God’s permission, determined guilt. A person’s rank, status, and or wealth determined their punishment, rather than the merits of the case at hand.
THE PRE-CLASSICAL PERIOD OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. Annals of the Association of American Geographers: Vol. A choice of tax treatments for your contributions: -traditional (pre-tax) contributions and tax-deferred investment earnings -Roth (after-tax) contributions with tax-free earnings at retirement if you satisfy the IRS requirements (see pages 6 – 9). low administrative and investment expenses. agency/service contributions, if you are an. Spanning seventy years, the classical period is a time when composers began pulling in the reigns of the many baroque period musical styles by creating strict compositional 'rules and regulations.' Yet within their rigidity, great composers like Haydn and Mozart were able to create some of the greatest classical music the world has ever known.
- Comte, A. (1877). System of positive polity (4th vol.). New York: Burt Franklin. ↵
The Pre-Socratic period of the Ancient era of philosophy refers to Greek philosophers active before Socrates, or contemporaries of Socrates who expounded on earlier knowledge.
They include the following major philosophers:
| Thales of Miletos (c. 624 - 546 B.C.) Greek Anaximander (c. 610 - 546 B.C.) Greek Anaximenes (c. 585 - 525 B.C.) Greek Pythagoras (c. 570 - 490 B.C.) Greek Heraclitus (c. 535 - 475 B.C.) Greek Parmenides of Elea (c. 515 - 450 B.C.) Greek | Anaxagoras (c. 500 - 428 B.C.) Greek Empedocles (c. 490 - 430 B.C.) Greek Zeno of Elea (c. 490 - 430 B.C.) Greek Protagoras (c. 490 - 420 B.C.) Greek Gorgias (c. 487 - 376 B.C.) Greek Democritus (c. 460 - 370 B.C.) Greek |
Generally speaking, all that remains of their works are a few textual fragments and the quotations of later philosophers and historians.
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The Pre-Socratic philosophers rejected traditional mythological explanations for the phenomena they saw around them in favor of more rational explanations. They started to ask questions like where did everything come from, and why is there such variety, and how can nature be described mathematically? They tended to look for universal principles to explain the whole of Nature. Although they are arguably more important for the questions they asked than the answers they arrived at, the problems and paradoxes they identified became the basis for later mathematical, scientific and philosophic study.
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Important movements of the period include the Milesian School, the Eleatic School, the Ephesian School, Pluralism, Pythagoreanism, Sophism and Atomism.